The following description is provided solely to assist the understanding of the present invention. None of the references cited or information provided is admitted to be prior art to the present invention.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the United States. The most commonly used and accepted methods for determining risk of future heart disease include determining serum levels of cholesterol and lipoproteins, in addition to patient demographics and current health. There are well established recommendations for cut-off values for biochemical markers, including, for example without limitation, cholesterol and lipoprotein levels, for determining risk. However, cholesterol and lipoprotein cannot be the only risk factors because as many as 50% of people who are at risk for premature heart disease are currently not encompassed by the ATP III guidelines (i.e., Adult Treatment Panel III guidelines issued by the National Cholesterol Education Program and the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute).
Methods to measure lipoprotein and other lipids in the blood include, for example, evaluating fasting total cholesterol, triglyceride, HDL (high density lipoprotein), and/or LDL (low density lipoprotein) cholesterol concentrations. Currently, the most widely used method for measuring LDL cholesterol is the indirect Friedewald method (Friedewald, et al., Clin. Chem., 1972, 18:499-502). The Friedewald assay method requires three steps: 1) determination of plasma triglyceride (TG) and total cholesterol (TC), 2) precipitation of VLDL (very low density lipoprotein) and LDL (low density lipoprotein), and 3) quantitation of HDL cholesterol (HDLC). Using an estimate for VLDLC as one-fifth of plasma triglycerides, the LDL cholesterol concentration (LDLC) is calculated by the formula: LDLC=TC−(HDLC+VLDLC). While generally useful, the Friedewald method is of limited accuracy in certain cases. For example, errors can occur in any of the three steps, in part because this method requires that different procedures be used in each step. Furthermore, the Friedewald method is to a degree indirect, as it presumes that VLDLC concentration is one-fifth that of plasma triglycerides. Accordingly, when the VLDL of some patients deviates from this ratio, further inaccuracies occur.
Another method for evaluating blood lipoproteins contemplates measurement of lipoprotein size and density. The size distribution of lipoproteins varies among individuals due to both genetic and non-genetic influences. The diameters of lipoproteins typically range from about 7 nm to about 120 nm. In this diameter size range, there exist subfractions of the particles that are important predictors of cardiovascular disease. For example, VLDL transports triglycerides in the blood stream; thus, high VLDL levels in the blood stream are indicative of hypertriglyceridemia. These subfractions can be identified by analytical techniques that display the quantity of material as a function of lipoprotein size or density.
Regarding lipoprotein density analysis, ultracentrifugally isolated lipoproteins can be analyzed for flotation properties by analytic ultracentrifugation in different salt density backgrounds, allowing for the determination of hydrated LDL density, as shown in Lindgren, et al, Blood Lipids and Lipoproteins: Quantitation Composition and Metabolism, Ed. G. L. Nelson, Wiley, 1992, p. 181-274, which is incorporated herein by reference. For example, the LDL class can be further divided into seven subclasses based on density or diameter by using a preparative separation technique known as equilibrium density gradient ultracentrifugation. It is known that elevated levels of specific LDL subclasses, LDL-IIIa, Mb, IVa and IVb, correlates closely with increased risk for CHD (i.e., coronary heart disease), including atherosclerosis. Furthermore, determination of the total serum cholesterol level and the levels of cholesterol in the LDL and HDL fractions are routinely used as diagnostic tests for coronary heart disease risk. Lipoprotein class and subclass distribution is a more predictive test, however, since it is expensive and time-consuming, it is typically ordered by physicians only for a limited number of patients.
With respect to measurement of the sizes of lipoproteins, currently there is no single accepted method. Known methods for measuring the sizes of lipoproteins within a clinical setting include the vertical auto profile (VAP) (see e.g. Kulkarni, et al., J. Lip. Res., 1994, 35:159-168) whereby a flow analyzer is used for the enzymatic analysis of cholesterol in lipoprotein classes separated by a short spin single vertical ultracentrifugation, with subsequent spectrophotometry and analysis of the resulting data.
Another method (see e.g. Jeyarajah, E. J. et al., Clin Lab Med., 2006, 26:847-70) employs nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) for determining the concentrations of lipoprotein subclasses. In this method, the NMR chemical shift spectrum of a blood plasma or serum sample is obtained. The observed spectrum of the entire plasma sample is then matched by computer means with known weighted sums of previously obtained NMR spectra of lipoprotein subclasses. The weight factors that give the best fit between the sample spectrum and the calculated spectrum are then used to estimate the concentrations of constituent lipoprotein subclasses in the blood sample.
Another method, electrophoretic gradient gel separation (see e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 5,925,229; incorporated by reference herein) is a gradient gel electrophoresis procedure for the separation of LDL subclasses. The LDL fractions are separated by gradient gel electrophoresis, producing results that are comparable to those obtained by ultracentrifugation. This method generates a fine resolution of LDL subclasses, and is used principally by research laboratories. However, the gel separation method, which depends on uniform staining of all components that are subsequently optically measured, suffers from nonuniform chromogenicity. That is, not all lipoproteins stain equally well. Accordingly, the differential stain uptake can produce erroneous quantitative results. Additionally, the nonuniform chromogenicity can result in erroneous qualitative results, in that measured peaks may be skewed to a sufficient degree as to cause confusion of one class or subclass of lipoprotein with another. Furthermore, gradient gel electrophoresis can take many hours to complete.
Indeed, more recent methods for the quantitative and qualitative determination of lipoproteins from a biological sample have been described by Benner et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 7,259,018; incorporated by reference herein) which methods employ particulate size and/or ion mobility devices.